OPINION
FABE, Chief Justice.
I. INTRODUCTION
An Alaska state trooper was discharged for having consensual sex with a domestic violence victim the morning after assisting in the arrest of the victims husband. The Public Safety Employees Association (PSEA), the labor organization that represents the Alaska State Troopers, filed a grievance under its collective bargaining agreement with the State of Alaska. The matter went to arbitration. The arbitrator ordered that the trooper be reinstated with back pay after a three-day suspension, concluding that the State did not have just cause to discharge the trooper. The superior court upheld the arbitrators order of back pay but decided that it could not enforce the ordered reinstatement because the Alaska Police Standards Council had by this point revoked the troopers police certificate. The State now appeals, arguing that the arbitrator committed gross error and that the arbitrators order is unenforceable as a violation of public policy.
The keys to this appeal are the level of deference we accord the arbitrator and the very limited nature of the public policy exception. The State and PSEAs collective bargaining agreement provided for binding arbitration to resolve employee grievances regarding disciplinary actions,. We generally will not disturb the results of a binding arbitration, even where we would reach a different conclusion were we to review the matter independently. Because no statute, regulation, or written policy prohibited supervisors from engaging in progressive discipline of the trooper, in lieu of discharging him for his misconduct, the arbitrators decision to impose discipline rather than uphold the termination does not violate any explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy. Because the arbitrators award is neither unenforceable nor grossly erroneous, we affirm the superior courts decision to uphold the arbitration award in part.
II. FACTS AND PROCEEDINGS
A. Facts
The following facts are based on the ree-ord, the arbitration decision, and the opinion of the superior court. [Wle give great deference to an arbitrators decision, including findings of ... fact. The Trooper-Griev-ant was discharged on November 2, 2009. The discharge was based on misconduct that occurred in April 2009, a little over a year after the Trooper-Grievant first entered the trooper training academy and less than two months after he started his position as a state trooper. The Trooper-Grievant entered the trooper academy as a recruit in February 2008, undergoing four months of training in a variety of subjects including Criminal Code, Domestic Violence, First Aid, Handgun Radar, Search & Seizure, Handgun, and Traffic Stops. - Following field training and the completion of his probationary period, the Trooper-Grievant was promoted to the position of Alaska State Trooper in March 2009.
In April 2009 the Trooper-Grievant engaged in the misconduct that led to this case. At the time, he was 24 years old. On April 19 the Trooper-Grievant responded to a request by Trooper C for backup. Trooper C had been dispatched to victim M.H.s house after another trooper, Trooper G, asked the dispatch center to request a welfare check on M.H. Trooper G, who was an acquaintance of MH., had received calls from her that day possibly indicating that there was a domestic disturbance at her house and that she needed assistance.
When Trooper C arrived at M.H.s house, MH. appeared to be afraid of her husband, J.H. The husband was intoxicated and became physically aggressive toward Trooper C, who then called for backup. Upon his arrival, the Trooper-Grievant aided Trooper C in restraining J.H. and in transferring him to Trooper Cs car. Trooper C interviewed MH., who reported that J.H. had not struck her but had threatened her verbally and put her in fear. MH. reported that J.H. was upset about her receiving phone calls from Trooper G, and MH. noted that J.H. believed she was being unfaithful to him. The Trooper-Grievant was present for portions of Trooper Cs interview with M.H.
After Trooper C finished interviewing MH., he asked the Trooper-Grievant to go over a pamphlet on domestic violence and victims rights with her while Trooper C interviewed M.H.s daughter in another part of the house. According to testimony by the Trooper-Grievant and MH., [M.H.] flirted with [the Trooper-Grievant] as he read her the victims rights information. MH. asked the Trooper-Grievant for his personal cell phone number, but he refused to provide it to her. Meanwhile, Trooper C arrested J.H. and charged him with assault on both M.H. and Trooper C.
At the end of his shift, at approximately 1:00 a.m., the Trooper-Grievant returned home and went to sleep. At about 5:80 a.m., the Trooper-Grievant woke up, obtained M.H.s cell phone number from his trooper notebook, and sent a text message to M.H. The Trooper-Grievant told MH. that he could give her his personal phone number now that he was off duty. MH. called the Trooper-Grievant, and after some discussion the Trooper-Grievant drove to her house in his personal car and out of uniform, arriving at about 6:00 a.m. According to the arbitrators findings, when the Trooper-Grievant arrived, MH. was still upset. She expressed her feeling that she was done with her marriage. MH. and the Trooper-Grievant proceeded to have consensual sex.
MH. later told J.H. about her sexual encounter with the Trooper-Grievant. JH. told his defense attorney, who in turn told the assistant district attorney. The District Attorneys Office investigated, and both M.H. and the Trooper-Grievant confirmed that the encounter had taken place. Ultimately the charge of assault on Trooper C was dropped and the charge of assault on M.H. was reduced to harassment. The District Attorneys Office made these decisions based on several considerations, including the Trooper-Grievants sexual encounter, MH. and J.H.s reconciliation, and the fact that MH. was not a cooperative witness. The arbitrator found that there was evidence that the sexual encounter had a minimal impact on the District Attorneys charging decisions.
The State conducted an administrative investigation of the incident, during which the Trooper-Grievant remained on duty. The investigating officer concluded that the Trooper-Grievant had violated sections of the Department of Public Safety Operating Procedure Manual. The Trooper-Grievants supervising officer, Captain Dennis E. Casanovas, recommended suspension rather than termination. Captain Casanovas recognized that the Trooper-Grievant had been progressing well despite his young age and lack of prior law enforcement experience. In forming his recommendation, Captain Casanovas relied on both his extensive previous experience as an investigation coordinator and his personal knowledge of the Trooper-Grievants work capabilities. But the Director of the State Troopers, Colonel Audie Holloway, overruled Captain Casanovas and decided to discharge the Trooper-Grievant. The resulting termination letter informed the Trooper-Grievant that he had violated the Operating - Procedure - Manual - sections 101.010(B), 101.020(G@), 101.070(A), - and 101.070(B)3 The letter stated that despite your knowledge of this womans valnerable condition after her recent domestic violence victimization, you put yourself, this agency, the District Attorneys Office and the criminal prosecution of this case in jeopardy by surrendering to the temptations of a sexual encounter. The letter also characterized the Trooper-Grievants conduct as shocking and a discredit" to the Department of Public Safety.
B. Proceedings
Following the termination, both the Trooper-Grievant and the State sought further action. The Trooper-Grievant filed a grievance challenging his discharge under his unions collective bargaining agreement, and the dispute proceeded to arbitration. While the arbitration was in process, the State sought revocation of the Trooper Grievants basic police certificate from the Alaska Police Standards Council, the regulatory and quasi-judicial body charged with establishing minimum selection and training standards for police officers. This certificate is a requirement for every state trooper.
In December 2010 the arbitrator issued her decision. She found that the Trooper-Grievant had engaged in unprofessional conduct and showed poor judgment. Yet she also found that the State had not fulfilled its duty to inform the Trooper-Grievant about the parameters of acceptable behavior. The arbitrator noted that past instances of sexual misconduct had not resulted in terminations, that just cause required consistent disciplinary action, and that the State must inform troopers if the policy has shifted to zero-tolerance. - Finally, the arbitrator determined that the Trooper-Grievants conduct did not rise to the level of egregious behavior and that the principles of progressive discipline thus required the opportunity for rehabilitation. Finding that the Trooper-Griev-ant had not been discharged for just cause, the arbitrator ordered that he be reinstated with back pay and converted his discharge to a three-day suspension.
In January 2011 the State filed a complaint in superior court to vacate the arbitration award. Before the superior court case could be resolved, however, an administrative law judge heard the police certificate revocation action and issued his decision on April 12, 2011. The Police Standards Council had proposed two grounds for revocation: (1) lack of good moral character under 13 AAC 85.110(a)(8), and (2) a discharge for cause for inefficiency, incompetence, or some other reason that adversely affects the ability and fitness of the police officer to perform job duties or that is detrimental to the reputation, integrity, or discipline of the police department under 13 AAC 85.110(a)(2).
The administrative law judge determined that the Police Standards Council had a valid basis to revoke the Trooper-Grievants police certificate. But the administrative law judge found the first of the councils two proposed grounds for revocation, lack of good moral character, to be unfounded. The administrative law judge found that revocation was in fact warranted on the second ground, which allows revocation of a certificate for an officer who has been discharged on one of the grounds contained in 13 AAC 85.110(2)(2). On May 6, 2011, the Police Standards Council voted to revoke the Trooper-Grievants certificate.
On May 9, 2011, the State filed a motion, asking the superior court to vacate the arbitration award because it was contrary to public policy and because it resulted from gross error. The superior court asked the parties to provide supplemental briefing on the effect of the Police Standards Councils revocation. In its supplemental briefing, the State argued that because a basic certificate is a requirement to be an Alaska State Trooper, the Trooper-Grievant could not be lawfully reinstated and thus the arbitration award could not be enforced.
Superior Court Judge Mark Rindner concluded that the arbitration award was not the result of gross error. The superior court additionally determined that the award could not be vacated under the public policy exception to the enforcement of arbitration awards because the State does not have an explicit, well defined, and dominant public policy that prohibits employing a person as an Alaska State Trooper who has a consensual sexual encounter with a erime victim. The superi- or court nevertheless held that it could not fully enforce the arbitration award, given that requiring reinstatement would violate the regulatory requirement that the [Trooper-Grievant] have a basic [police] certificate. The superior court stated that it would only enforce the Award to the extent it can be consistent with Alaska law. The superior court ordered that the portions of the arbitrators award providing for the payment of lost wages and benefits after May 6, 2011 [when the Police Standards Council revoked his police certificate] and for the reinstatement of the former employee are not enforced." The superior court upheld the part of the award granting back pay between the date of the Trooper-Grievants termination and the date that his certificate was revoked.
The State appeals, arguing that (1) the arbitration award should be vacated in full as contrary to public policy and (2) in the alternative, the arbitration award should be vacated in full for gross error.
III. STANDARD OF REVIEW
We articulated the relevant standard of review in PSEA 2010;
We review de novo the superior courts decision to confirm the arbitration award. Both the common law and Alaska statutes evince a strong public policy in favor of arbitration. In order to encourage parties to pursue arbitration, Alaska courts have a policy of minimizing their interference with arbitration decisions. Thus, we give great deference to an arbitrators decision, including findings of both fact and law. We will only vacate an arbitration award arising out of a collective bargaining agreement where it is the result of gross error-those mistakes that are both obvious and significant. We will not vacate such an award merely because we would reach a different decision ourselves. This deferential standard is key to the decision we reach today."[]
IV. DISCUSSION
A. The Arbitration Award Is Not Unenforceable As A Violation Of Public Policy.
The State argues that the arbitration award should be vacated as contrary to public policy because it is in conflict with the Alaska Police Standards Councils decision to revoke the troopers police certification, and because the nature of the troopers conduct undermines the publics interests in a police force that acts to protect the public and the integrity of the criminal justice system. In essence, the State contends that reinstatement violates public policy because the Trooper-Grievants underlying conduct was repugnant and because that conduct violated the public policy requiring that law enforcement officers act with the primary purpose of protecting the public in general and crime and domestic violence victims in particular and that officers be persons of integrity and high moral character. But the correct ques- tion is not whether the Trooper-Grievants conduct violated public policy; rather, it is whether the arbitration award of reinstate ment with back pay itself violates an explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy. Although we cannot disagree with the State that the Trooper-Grievants conduct was censurable, we also cannot overturn an arbitrators decision if that decision does not violate an explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy. We therefore must affirm the superior courts decision to uphold the arbitrators award in part.
1. PSEA 2011 and Alaskas public policy exception to the enforcement of arbitration awards
In PSEA 2011 we considered as a matter of first impression whether to adopt a public policy exception to the enforcement of arbitration awards. We decided to recognize this exception, holding that it applied where enforcement of the arbitration decision would violate an explicit, well defined, and dominant public policy In formulating this definition, we drew on the United States Supreme Courts approach to the public policy exception to the enforcement of arbitration awards. The public policy exception derives from the common-law principle that a court may refuse to enforce illegal contracts. Accordingly, we noted in PSHA 2011 that this formulation of the exception is consistent with our previous holdings on the unenforceability of contracts. In Pavone v. Pavone, we adopted the Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 178 in its analysis of the public policy exception to the enforcement of contracts. This section of the Restatement provides: A promise or other term of an agreement is unenforceable on grounds of public policy if legislation provides that it is unenforceable or the interest in its enforcement is clearly outweighed in the cireum-stances by a public policy against the enforcement of such terms."
The United States Supreme Court has made clear that the public policy exeeption to: the enforcement of arbitration awards must be narrow and that the public policy at issue must be explicit, well defined, and dominant ... [and] [it must be ascertained by reference to the laws and legal precedents and not from general considerations of supposed public interests In addition, the Supreme Court warned courts to approach with particular caution pleas to divine further public policy in a field in which other political branches have already created a regulatory regime. Following the United States Supreme Courts approach, the test we adopted in PSWA 2011 establish[es] a high hurdle for the vacatur of arbitration awards due to this courts longstanding recognition of Alaskas strong public policy in favor of arbitration.
We emphasized in PSFHA 2011 that the relevant inquiry is whether the arbitrators decision to reinstate the employee violates public policy, not whether an employees conduct does, so statutes or regulations that merely prohibit the conduct are insufficient to support the public policy exception. In applying this rule to the facts of PSHFA 2011, where an arbitrator reinstated a trooper who had lied about performing a prohibited maneuver at an out-of-state motorcycle training program, we provided the following analy-sig:
All of the preceding sources support the conclusion that it is Alaskas policy to maintain an honest police force. But there has never been a question that it is against public policy for a police officer to lie. The question is whether it is against Alaskas public policy to reinstate a police officer who has lied as the Trooper did in the present case.[]
We ultimately characterized the question as being whether there is a categorical requirement in Alaska public policy for the termination of officers who engage in relatively minor forms of dishonesty.
In this case, the question is not whether the Trooper-Grievants conduct is against public policy. Rather, the relevant inquiry is whether a decision to use progressive discipline and to continue the employment of a trooper who has engaged in this type of sexual misconduct is a violation of an explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy.
Focusing selectively on language from PSEA 2011, the dissent contends that our formulation of the public policy exception to the enforcement of arbitration awards requires that we make a broader inquiry than we do here. The dissent calls attention to provisions in the Restatement that we cited in PSEA 2011 as part of our general discussion of whether to adopt the public policy exception. Of particular importance to the dissent are Restatement provisions suggesting that in some contexts a court may hold an arbitration award unenforceable even where no explicit public policy requires that result.
But in focusing on our reference to these provisions of the Restatement, the dissent ignores the overall thrust of PSEA 2011. As we observed then, the Restatement provides both general guidelines for determining un-enforceability on public policy grounds and more specific guidelines for making this determination in various commonly recurring contexts. Our express holding in PSFWA 2011 was that reviewing arbitration awards by determining whether there is an explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy against enforcement reflects how the general Restatement rules operate in the recurring context of arbitration awards. We established this high bar for vacatur of arbitration awards to incorporate the special public interest in the enforcement of arbitration decisions ... given our longstanding recognition of Alaskas strong public policy in favor of arbitration. Only taken out of context can the portions of the Restatement cited in PSEA 2011 on which the dissent focuses suggest that we favor substantial latitude in vacating arbitration awards on the basis of our own ideas of desirable public policy. We clearly recognized in PSEA 2011 the special importance of arbitration, and we consequently strictly limited the seope of review of arbitration awards. Our decision today corresponds with that limited review.
2. The reinstatement of the Trooper-Grievant is not unenforceable as a violation of Alaska public policy.
We begin by considering whether there is legislation specifically prohibiting enforcement of the promise or contractual term. In our analysis, we look to the entire body of law in the State of Alaska for evidence ... to determine ... public policy. The State does not point to any law or regulation that specifically prohibits the employment or reinstatement of a trooper who has engaged in sexual misconduct when that trooper still has a police certificate. Rather, the State focuses on five sources of authority that it argues justify the public policy exception and prohibit the Trooper-Grievants conduct: (1) the Alaska Constitution; (2) case law; (8) statutes and regulations; (4) the Department of Public Safetys Operating Procedures Manual; and (5) PSEA 2011s principles of public trust and heightened vigilance. But the States focus is misguided. Again, the relevant inquiry is not whether the officers conduct violated public policy but rather whether the arbitrators award violates an explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy. The public policies cited by the State do not compel termination. And the State has not directed us to any public policy that would have compelled the termination of a trooper for the misconduct at issue at the time of the arbitration. Indeed, the State clearly had the authority-and it was in fact the recommendation of the Trooper-Grievants supervisor-to use progressive discipline rather than to discharge the Trooper-Grievant. No statute or internal regulation prohibited the use of progressive discipline in this case. Because the collective bargaining agreement provided for binding arbitration, the arbitrator also had the authority to impose progressive discipline. The arbitrators order of reinstatement after suspension, therefore, cannot be characterized as a violation of public policy. «
a. Alaskas Constitution
The State cites article I, sections 1, 12, and 24 of the Alaska Constitution. Article I, section 1 provides that all persons are entitled to equal rights, opportunities and protection under the law. Article I, section 12 states that [cJriminal administration shall be based upon the following: the need for protecting the public ... [and] ... the rights of victims of crimes. Article I, section 24 provides that [cJrime victims ... shall have the following rights ... the right to be reasonably protected from the accused through the imposition of appropriate bail or conditions of release by the court ... [and] ... the right to be treated with dignity, respect, and fairness during all phases of the criminal and juvenile justice process. But these constitutional provisions do not evince the requisite explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy to terminate a trooper for the specific conduct in this case.
b. Case law
Next the State relies on our decision in Jones v. Jennings. Jones, however, involved the States interest in public disclosure of alleged police misconduct including assault, battery, and false imprisonment. And our decision addressed privilege and the officers right to privacy, not the public policy exception in the context of arbitration awards. Our statement that there is a public interest in insurfing] that police behavior conforms to the code of conduct required of a democratic society does not constitute an explicit, well-defined, or dominant public policy. The State also cites to PSEA 2010. But our brief commentary on the States public policy argument in PSEA 2010 is not sufficient evidence of an explicit public policy that applies to the allowable discipline in this case.
c. Statutes and regulations
The State cites statutes and regulations concerning the Department of Public Safetys Council on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault and minimum standards for employment as a police officer. The State points to AS 18.66.010, which establishes the Council on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault. The mandate of the council includes planning and coordinating services for domestic violence victims. The State argues that AS 18.66.010 is an example of how [t]he States strong public policy requiring the protection of crime victims is evident in our states commitment to preventing domestic violence. It is true that this statute expresses the States public policy of aiding domestic violence victims. Yet the statute does not give any indication that reinstating a trooper who has engaged in sexual misconduct is against public policy. As such, the statute is insufficient to invoke the public policy exception.
The State also notes statutory and regulatory provisions that allow it to establish minimum standards for police officers and revoke the certificate of an officer who does not meet these standards. Alaska Statute 18.65.240(c) merely provides that the Alaska Police Standards Council may ... revoke the certificate of a police officer who does not meet the standards adopted under (a)(2) of this section, including the qualification of moral character. (Emphasis added.) The legislatures use of may rather than shall, in conjunction with the States past use of progressive discipline of troopers who engaged in sexual misconduct, indicates that there is no absolute requirement for the discharge of troopers who have engaged in this type of misconduct.
In addition, the State cites 13 AAC 85.110(b)(3), which provides that the State shall revoke the certificate of an officer who was discharged for conduct ... that would cause a reasonable person to have substantial doubt about an individuals honesty, fairness, and respect for the rights of others and for the laws of this state and the United States or that is detrimental to the integrity of the police department where the police officer worked. In PSEA 2011 we concluded that while this same regulation strongly suggests that it is the policy of the State of Alaska not to employ dishonest police officers ... it is unclear whether the regulation means to prohibit the employment of police officers who have been dishonest to any degree or under any circumstance. Similarly, these requirements do not make clear whether the regulation categorically prohibits the employment of troopers who engaged in consensual sexual misconduct.
The dissent takes up the argument where the State leaves off, contending that 13 AAC 85.110(b)(3) is more than sufficient as an expression of public policy to justify disturbing the arbitrators decision here. We cannot agree. If a court could reject an arbitration decision simply because it concludes that the conduct at issue falls into the broad categories of undesirable behavior described in 13 AAC 85.110(b)(8), the court would owe an arbitrators decision little deference. There are countless acts that are not grounds for termination-much less mandatory termination-but that nevertheless might be detrimental to the integrity of the police department or might be matched with one of the other generalities found in 18 AAC 85.110(b)(8). Under the dissents view, a court should be empowered to reject an otherwise valid arbitration award solely on the basis that the conduct at issue could reasonably fit into one of those catch-all categories.
This view would make nonsense of our statement in PSEA 2011 that the public policy exception does not permit a court to reject an arbitration decision merely because the court might have decided the case differently. In that case it was undisputed that the officer lied to his superiors-conduct that we did not hesitate to call unworthy of an Alaska state trooper. The officers lying would almost certainly cause a reasonable person to have substantial doubt about the officers honesty. Given the nature of the conduct about which the officer lied-carrying out a prohibited motorcycle stunt-a reasonable person would likely also have substantial doubt about the officers respect for the law. The integrity of the police department would reasonably be in question as well. Yet we declined to overturn the arbitrators reinstatement of the officer because the gross error standard sets a higher bar. If 13 AAC 85.110(b)(8) were an expression of public policy sufficient to reject an arbitration decision, the gross error standard would be meaningless; a court could invalidate arbitration awards far more freely than that standard allows.
The dissent further argues that by finding general statements such as 13 AAC 85.110(b)(8) insufficient, we now require the other branches of government to draw unrealistically precise lines beyond which mis-
conduct is intolerable as a matter of public policy. But while we require more from the State than the vague directives at issue here, we do not demand the luminous detail that the dissent suggests will now be needed. The State does not have to detail precisely the forms that sexual misconduct may take or the cireumstances in which it could take place. It does not have to define in advance all the ways that employees may misbehave. But if the State wishes to bar categorically the reinstatement of officers discharged for sexual misconduct, it must make a policy to that effect. In the absence of such a policy, this court will not disturb a duly reached arbitration award.
d. Internal regulations
The State cites the Department of Public Safetys Operating Procedures Manual. In particular, the State highlights sections that prohibit behavior that shocks the conscience or that violates generally recognized standards of professional behavior or that brings the Department into disrepute ... or . impairs the operations or efficiency of the Department.
The States argument, though, is contradicted by our holding in PSWA 2011, where the State relied on a section of the Operating Procedures Manual that requires employees to respond truthfully to their superiors and to questioning during official investigations. While we recognized the requirements laid out by the Operating Procedures Manual, we explained that the Manual says nothing about the kind of informal investigation during which the Trooper lied, and in general stops short of discussing the consequences of dishonesty. Again, the Operating Procedures Manual sections at issue in this case do not clearly concern cireumstances similar to the Trooper-Grievants misconduct. And . more importantly, theese Operating Procedures Manual sections do not dictate disciplinary consequences for this type of misconduct. - Because no internal regulation prohibited the State from imposing discipline short of termination in response to the misconduct, it was also within the arbitrators discretion to order reinstatement and discipline of the Trooper-Grievant.
e. The principles of public trust and heightened vigilance
One of the considerations that we discussed in PSEA 2011 is that the court should be particularly vigilant where the employees misconduct was in the performance of his or her duties and directed toward the public, and could therefore undermine confidence in public institutions that rely upon the publics trust. The State argues that the Trooper-Grievants misconduct falls within this category of cases and thus warrants special scrutiny. PSEA responds that the State has not terminated other troopers whom PSEA alleges have engaged in similar misconduct.
We acknowledge that the underlying conduct in this case involved the troopers duties to the public. But the public policy exception still requires an explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy even in a case involving a troopers performance of duties directed toward the public. For example, other courts have held that the public policy exception applied in cases of police officers inappropriate behavior with a minor boy in violation of state statute and misconduct involving false arrests, false charges, and perjury. And even before we recognized the public policy exception, we reversed an arbitrators award of reinstate, ment of a public employee who was discharged for a serious crime, having been convicted of a felony involving violation of public trust. But in the case before us, the public policy exception does not apply because although the Trooper-Grievants misconduct was censurable, the arbitrators order reinstating him does not violate any explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy.
We recognize that while arbitrations in this type of case often involve egregious employee misconduct that may affect public safety, reinstatements in such cases are not always against public policy. In particular, courts have upheld reinstatement of law enforcement officers who had consensual sex with a witness or informant. For example, in an unpublished decision, an Ohio appellate court upheld an arbitrators reinstatement of a deputy sheriff who had been discharged for initiating and then engaging in consensual sexual conduct with a confidential informant while on duty and in uniform because the act was not criminal and there was no statute or case law mandating discharge. - Similarly, the Michigan Court of Appeals upheld an arbitrators reinstatement of a police officer who had engaged in an improper consensual act of a sexual nature with the complaining witness after responding to her call for assistance and while on duty. In that case, after the officer had an on-duty sexual encounter with the individual who had called for assistance, the officer failed to note his visit in his log book and failed to file an incident report. In response to questions the following day, the officer lied about the sexual act. But because the arbitrators reinstatement was based on the collective bargaining agreement and the penalty of discharge was optional, the court affirmed the arbitrators order to reinstate the officer.
In sum, although the question of the public policy exception may arise more frequently when employee conduct affects the public trust, the award will fall into the exception only if the award itself violates an explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy. All of the States sources support the conclusion that Alaska has a policy to protect victims and prohibit sexual misconduct But the question is not whether the Trooper-Griev-ants misconduct violated public policy; it is whether it is against Alaskas public policy to use a progressive disciplinary sanction such as suspension for a trooper who engaged in this misconduct. The State has not pointed to any explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy requiring termination, rather than suspension, as the only proper discipline for a troopers consensual and non-criminal sexual misconduct. In fact, as the arbitrator found, incidents of sexual misconduct often have been punished with disciplinary sance-tions short of termination. The discipline and reinstatement of such a trooper, therefore, is not a violation of public policy.
B. The Arbitrator Did Not Commit Gross Error In Concluding That There Was Not Just Cause To Discharge the Trooper-Grievant.
The State also claims that the arbitrators decision constituted gross error. We have defined gross error as only those mistakes which are both obvious and significant. Because we conclude that the arbitrator did not commit gross error, we affirm the superior courts decision to uphold the arbitrators award.
1. The arbitrator did not commit gross error in interpreting the collective bargaining agreement.
The State first challenges the arbitrators interpretation of the term egregious misconduct. The collective bargaining agreement provides the following definition: Egregious misconduct which may result in discharge includes, but is not limited to, gross disobedience or insubordination, dishonesty, chemical or alcohol intoxication at the workplace, physical misconduct, criminal conduct, abusive or lewd behavior, or abandonment of duties. (Emphasis added.) Relying on this definition, the arbitrator explained that [elgregious behavior that warrants summary discharge includes extremely serious behavior such as stealing, striking a foreman, persistent refusal to obey a legitimate order and dishonesty. Less serious infractions of plant rules or of proper conduct such as insolence, call for some milder penalty aimed at correction.
The State argues that the arbitrator committed gross error because she allegedly used her own definition of egregious misconduct instead of the definition provided by the collective bargaining agreement. PSEA responds that [it is clear that throughout her decision [the arbitrator] was applying the correct standard set out in the Collective Bargaining Agreement as she discussed in great length and in detail the level of misconduct by the Grievant and similar acts of misconduct by other Troopers. PSEA is correct.
While arbitrators must adhere to the plain language of the contract, [a] mere ambiguity in the opinion accompanying an award, which permits the inference that the arbitrator may have exceeded his authority, is not a reason for refusing to enforce the award. In addition, as long as the arbitrator is even arguably construing or applying the contract and acting within the scope of his authority, that a court is convineed he committed serious error does not suffice to overturn his decision. The arbitrator has broad authority to interpret the collective bargaining agreement: The labor arbitrators source of law is not confined to the express provisions of the contract, as the industrial common law-the practices of the industry and the shop-is equally a part of the collective bargaining agreement although not expressed in it. And if the arbitrators construction is plausible, it must not be disturbed. - Here, we need only ask whether the arbitrators construction of the collective bargaining agreement constitutes an obvious and significant" mistake. We conclude that the arbitrators construction was not gross error.
In her decision, the arbitrator interpreted the collective bargaining agreement definition to determine whether the Trooper-Grievants misconduct was serious enough to constitute [elgregious misconduct warranting discharge. The arbitrator relied on Captain Casanovass testimony and the Troop er-Grievants honest and forthright and sincere[ ] responses during the hearing to assess the seriousness of his conduct, reasoning that [why a grievant did what he or she did inevitably relates to the gravity of the misconduct. The arbitrator found that [tlhere is no evidence to indicate that [the Trooper-Grievants] behavior could not be corrected, concluding that, [blased on the States disciplinary approach in similar situations, this type of conduct has warranted an opportunity to correct the behavior. Accordingly, the arbitrator expressly disagreed with Colonel Holloways interpretation of [elgregious misconduct and determined that the Troop er-Grievants unprofessional conduct and poor judgment did not rise to the level of [elgregious behavior ... warrant[ing] summary discharge under the collective bargaining agreement.
Again, our standard for reviewing an arbitrators decision is very deferential. We review only for gross error. And because the arbitrator analyzed whether the Trooper-Grievants misconduct rose to (egregious misconduct which may result in discharge under the collective bargaining agreement and the States disciplinary practices in cases of sexual misconduct, we cannot conclude that the arbitrators analysis was gross error.
Moreover, we have held that an arbitrators use of a well-reasoned alternative definition of just cause would not alone constitute gross error Therefore, the arbitrator was not bound by this courts definition of just cause. Under our definition of just cause, the termination would have been affirmed. But because we apply a deferential standard of review and because the arbitrator analyzed whether the Trooper-Grievants misconduct rose to [elgregious misconduct" warranting discharge, we conclude the arbitrators interpretation of the collective bargaining agreement was not gross error.
2. The arbitrator did not commit gross error in the disparate treatment analysis.
The State challenges the arbitrators disparate treatment analysis. First, the State argues that the disparate treatment analysis was inappropriate because it could lead to toleration of police officer misconduct. See-ond, the State claims that the record evidence did not support the arbitrators conclusion for several reasons: (1) some of the cases were from the 1990s; (2) many of the cases involved greater discipline than a three-day suspension; and (8) the cases involved less severe misconduct that did not mirror the misconduct in this case. Finally, the State contends that the arbitrator failed to explain how the three-day suspension is consistent with past disciplinary action and that the record does not provide support for the propriety of this penalty.
In raising the concern of employer leniency toward misconduct, the State relies on PSEA 2011 and decisions from other jurisdictions. But while we cautioned in PSEA 2011 that the disparate treatment doctrine should not operate as a one-way ratchet toward the acceptance of increasingly unethical behavior, we also noted that it was not gross error for the arbitrator to have taken a different approach from the one we may have taken. Reasoning that the State cannot deviate from the negotiated agreement by implementing zero tolerance for an offense that has previously been addressed through progressive discipline," the arbitrator concluded that if the State decides to implement a new zero-tolerance policy for sexual misconduct, it must provide notice to its employees.
The State also attempts to distinguish the other cases relied on by the arbitrator as involving less severe misconduct or more serious punishments. We will vacate the arbitrators award only if there was an obvious and significant mistake. Here, the arbitrator analyzed a number of cases varying in specific misconduct and severity. The State terminated the trooper in only one out of the eight cases involving sexual misconduct. The State imposed less severe discipline in all other instances of sexual misconduct, including: a troopers inappropriate sexual contact in the trooper office while on duty; sexual harassment of and an inappropriate personal relationship with the troopers supervisee; a trooper instructors signing a womans breast at a bar in front of trooper recruits; a troopers inappropriate sexual advances; a troopers sexual relationship with a nineteen-year-old intoxicated woman while the trooper was supposed to investigate her criminal complaint of sexual abuse by her stepfather; a troopers extramarital sexual relationship with an adult female from the village while on a village visit on official travel for the Department; and a troopers sexual relationship with the daughter of a murder victim during an ongoing investigation. And in the only case of sexual misconduct that resulted in a termination, there were allegations of both inappropriate sexual conduct and dishonesty. Moreover, the record reviewed by the arbitrator suggests that the State still uses progressive discipline, including short periods of suspension, in cases of sexual misconduct. The arbitrator did not commit an obvious and significant error in her analysis.
Finally, the State claims that the arbitrator failed to explain why the three-day suspension is consistent with the past disciplinary actions. But the arbitrator relied on Captain Casanovass testimony and recommendation of a disciplinary suspension, which was based on his extensive experience with administrative investigations. The arbitrator further explained that, based on her findings, progressive discipline was appropriate because it was possible for the Trooper-Griev-ant to rehabilitate himself, The arbitrator noted that Captain Casanovas recommended suspension rather than termination after carefully weigh{ing] ... his knowledge of the [Trooper]-Grievants work progression ... and ... the likelihood of the [Trooper}-Grievants correcting his behavior. The arbitrators reliance on the testimony of Captain Casanovas, who supervised the Trooper-Grievant and had personal knowledge of the Trooper-Grievants work capabilities, does not meet our standard for gross error.
v. CONCLUSION
The Trooper-Grievants misconduct was extremely serious and offensive. If we had been deciding this case it is likely that we would have concluded that under Alaska law, the State had just cause to discharge the Trooper-Grievant. Engaging in sexual conduct with a victim shortly after responding to her call for help, even if consensual, is inappropriate behavior for a state trooper. But we may not vacate ... an award merely because we would reach a different decision ourselves. Because there is no explicit, well-defined, and dominant public policy in Alaska prohibiting reinstatement of a law enforcement officer who has engaged in off-duty consensual sexual misconduct, and because the arbitrator did not commit gross error, we AFFIRM the superior courts decision to uphold the arbitrators award in part.
MAASSEN, Justice, with whom STOWERS, Justice, joins, dissenting.
. State v. Pub. Safety Emps. Assn, 235 P.3d 197, 201 (Alaska 2010) (PSEA 2010).
. To protect the victims privacy and the confidentiality of personnel records under AS 39.25.080(a), we do not identify the victim, her husband, or the troopers involved in the incident.
. The Department of Public Safety Operating Procedure Manual section 101.010(B) provides that [the standards of conduct set out in this chapter do not prohibit every possible act that constitutes unacceptable behavior. Conduct that shocks the conscience or that violates generally recognized standards of professional behavior is forbidden. Operating Procedure Manual section 101.020(G), which concerns Canons of Police Ethics with regard to private conduct, provides:
The law enforcement officer shall be mindful of his special identification by the public as an upholder of the law. Laxity of conduct or manner in private life, expression of either disrespect for the law or seeking to gain special privilege, reflects unfavorably upon the police officer and the police service. The community and the service require that the law enforcement officer lead the life of a decent and honorable man. Following the career of a © policeman gives no man special perquisites. It does give the satisfaction and pride of following and furthering an unbroken tradition of safeguarding the American republic. The officer who reflects upon this tradition will not degrade it. Rather he will so conduct his private life that the public will regard him as an example of stability, fidelity, and morality.
Operating Procedure Manual section 101.070(A) provides:
Employees shall conduct themselves at all times, both on and off duty, in such a manner as to reflect most favorably on the Department. Conduct unbecoming an employee shall include that which brings the Department into disrepute, or reflects discredit upon the employee as a member of the Department, or that which impairs the operations or efficiency of the Department or employee.
Operating Procedure Manual section 101.070(B) provides that [elmployees shall conduct their personal and business affairs in a manner that does not discredit or otherwise bring the department into disrepute or compromise the employees ability to perform his or her duties.
. See AS 23.40.210(a) (The agreement shall include a grievance procedure which shall have binding arbitration as its final step.); AS 23.40.200(a)(1), (b).
. See AS 18.65.130; AS 18.65.220; AS 18.65.240; see generally DerartmENnt or Pusuc Sarety, History, Araska Porice Stanparps Counci, http://dps.alaska.gov/apsc/history.aspx (last visited Mar. 21, 2014).
. See 13 Alaska Administrative Code (AAC) 85.010(b)(3)(A) (2012) (A participating police department may not hire as a police officer a person ... who ... has had the persons basic certification revoked. ...).
. The administrative law judge found that the arbitrators order of reinstatement did not preclude the State from revoking the Trooper-Griev-ants license based on the original discharge. 13 AAC 85.110(f) provides that [a] personnel action or subsequent personnel action regarding a police officer by the police officers employer, including a decision resulting from an appeal of the employers action, does not preclude the council from revoking the police officers basic, intermediate, or advanced certificate under this section.
. The Trooper-Grievant appealed the revocation to superior court, but moved to dismiss the appeal in July 2011. The superior court accordingly dismissed the appeal in August 2011.
. The superior court noted that courts will not enforce contractual terms that directly violate legislation or regulations promulgated under valid legislation.
. - The superior court also stated that it may not necessarily agree with the arbitrators decision or find that it would have ruled in the same manner had this been a case of first impression.
. 235 P.3d 197, 201 (Alaska 2010) (internal quotation marks and citations omitted).
. See State v. Pub. Safety Emps. Assn, 257 P.3d 151, 161 (Alaska 2011) (PSEA 2011).
. Id. at 155-56. While the question of a public policy exception to arbitration awards had been raised in prior cases, this court did not previously have the opportunity to reach the issue, either finding that the issue had not been properly raised below or deciding the case on other grounds. See PSEA 2010, 235 P.3d at 203; Alaska Pub. Emps. Assn v. State, Dept of Envtl. Conservation, 929 P.2d 662, 667 (Alaska 1996).
. PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d at 158 (quoting PSEA 2010, 235 P.3d at 203). This court laid out three common principles, drawn from other jurisdictions, that should be used in the public policy exception analysis:
(1) the public policy exception to labor arbitration disputes involving public employees in po-
sitions of public trust is most clearly applicable where a statute or regulation compels the termination (or prevents the hiring) of an employee for committing the relevant misconduct; (2) the relevant inquiry is whether the arbitrators decision to reinstate the employee violates public policy, not whether an employees conduct does, so statutes or regulations that merely prohibit the conduct are insufficient to support the public policy exception; and (3) a court should be particularly vigilant where the employees misconduct was in the performance of his or her duties and directed toward the public, and could therefore undermine confidence in public institutions that rely upon the publics trust.
Id. at 162.
. See id. at 156 (citing E. Associated Coal Corp. v. United Mine Workers of Am., Dist. 17, 531 U.S. 57, 67, 121 S.Ct. 462, 148 L.Ed.2d 354 (2000)).
. See W.R. Grace & Co. v. Local 759, Intl Union of United Rubber, Cork, Linoleum & Plastic Workers of Am., 461 U.S. 757, 766, 103 S.Ct. 2177, 76 L.Ed.2d 298 (1983) (citing Hurd v. Hodge, 334 U.S. 24, 34-35, 68 S.Ct. 847, 92 L.Ed. 1187 (1948)) (holding enforcement of collective bargaining agreement would not violate public policy requiring obedience to court decisions or policy favoring voluntary compliance with Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964).
. PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d at 158-59.
. Id. at 159 (discussing Pavone v. Pavone, 860 P.2d 1228, 1231 (Alaska 1993)).
. Restatement (Seconp) or Contracts § 178(1) (1981).
. E. Associated Coal Corp., 531 U.S. at 62, 121 S.Ct. 462 (quoting Muschany v. United States, 324 U.S. 49, 66, 65 S.Ct. 442, 89 L.Ed. 744 (1945)) (emphasis added) (internal quotation marks omitted).
. Id. at 63, 121 S.Ct. 462 (upholding arbitration order to reinstate truck driver who tested positive for drugs).
. PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d at 160 (quoting Baseden v. State, 174 P.3d 233, 237 (Alaska 2008)); see also AS 23.40.210(a) (The agreement shall include a grievance procedure which shall have binding arbitration as its final step.); AS 23.40.200(a)(1), (b).
. PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d at 162 (emphases added); see also E. Associated Coal Corp., 531 U.S. at 62-63, 121 S.Ct. 462 ([The question to be answered is not whether [the grievants) drug use itself violates public policy, but whether the agreement to reinstate him does so.); City of Boston v. Boston Police Patrolmens Assn, 443 Mass. 813, 824 N.E.2d 855, 861 (2005) (citing City of Lynn v. Thompson, 435 Mass. 54, 754 N.E.2d 54, 62-63 (2001)) (To prevail, the city must therefore demonstrate that public policy requires that [the grievants] conduct, as found by the arbitrator, is grounds for dismissal, and that a lesser sanction would frustrate public policy.).
. See PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d at 153.
. Id. at 161.
. Id.
. Dissent at 688-89 (quoting Restatement(Sec-onp) or Contracts § 178(1) (1981)).
. Id.
. PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d at 159.
. Id. at 160 (internal quotation marks omitted).
. Id. at 159-60 (internal citations and quotation marks omitted).
. Id. at 160 (quoting Pavone v. Pavone, 860 P.2d 1228, 1231 (Alaska 1993)) (internal quotation marks omitted).
. Id. (omissions in original) (quoting Luedtke v. Nabors Alaska Drilling, Inc., 768 P.2d 1123, 1132 (Alaska 1989)) (internal quotation marks omitted).
. In addition, the State claims that the Alaska Police Standards Councils decision to revoke the Trooper-Grievants certification reaffirms that reversing the officers discharge was contrary to public policy. After the arbitrator ordered reinstatement, the council revoked the Trooper-Grievants certification based on the underlying discharg[e] for conduct that adversely affected his ability and fitness to act as a police officer, and that [was] detrimental to the reputation and integrity of the Alaska State Troopers. According to the State, the certificate revocation shows that the arbitrators decision to reverse the discharge violated public policy. But this argument is somewhat circular. Because the certificate revocation was based on the discharge that the arbitrator found lacked just cause, it is difficult to see how it can supply the justification for rejecting the arbitrators decision.
. See PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d at 162.
. Counsel for the State acknowledged that there is no statute or regulation specifically prohibiting reinstatement of a trooper who has engaged in this type of misconduct when the trooper still has the requisite police certificate. Rather, counsel claimed that the relevant public policy is the troopers basic duty to protect the public, based on a combination of constitutional, statutory, and regulatory principles.
. See AS 23.40.210(a) (The agreement shall include a grievance procedure which shall have binding arbitration as its final step.").
. 788 P.2d 732 (Alaska 1990).
. See id. at 733-35.
. See id. at 735-39.
, Id. at 739; see PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d at 160 (concluding that Jones did not establish a public policy against reinstatement of a dishonest police officer).
. 235 P.3d 197, 203 (Alaska 2010).
. See id.
. See AS 18.66.010.
. See id. (establishing the Council on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault to provide for planning and coordination of services to victims of domestic violence or sexual assault ... and to provide for crisis intervention and prevention programs).
. See id.
. See, eg., AS 18.65.130; AS 18.65.240(c) 13 AAC 85.100(a), (b); 13 AAC 85.110(a)(2), (3).
. PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d 151, 161 (Alaska 2011).
. We also note that the Alaska Police Standards Council did not base revocation of the Trooper-Grievants police certificate on this provision. Rather, the council revoked his police certificate under 13 AAC 85.110(a)(2), which provides that the council will, in its discretion, revoke a certificate if the officer has been discharged ... for cause for inefficiency, incompetence, or some other reason that adversely affects the ability and fitness of the police officer to perform job duties or that is detrimental to the reputation, integrity, or discipline of the police department where the police officer worked.
. Dissent at 690.
. As we wrote in PSEA 2011, If we had stood in the arbitrators place, we may well have determined that under Alaskas doctrine of just cause, the State did have just cause to terminate the Trooper.... But we are bound by the gross error standard, and it was not gross error for the arbitrator to have taken a different approach from the one we may have taken." 257 P.3d at 165.
. Id. at 166.
. Id.
. Dissent at 690-91.
. Id. at 691.
, See PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d at 161.
. Id.
. Id. at 162.
. See Police Officers Labor Council v. City of Wyoming, No. 258843, 2006 WL 2000136, at *1-2 (Mich.App. July 18, 2006) (concluding that the arbitration order of reinstatement was contrary to a Michigan statute prohibiting a person from encouraging a child to engage in delinquent acts and a police regulation).
. See City of Boston v. Boston Police Patrolmens Assn, 443 Mass. 813, 824 N.E.2d 855, 861 (2005) (The question to be answered is not whether [the officers conduct] itself violates public policy, but whether the agreement to reinstate him does so.") (citations omitted) (quoting E. Associated Coal Corp. v. United Mine Workers of Am., Dist. 17, 531 U.S. 57, 62-63, 121 S.Ct. 462, 148 L.Ed.2d 354 (2000).
. See Alaska State Emps. Assn/AFSCME Local 52 v. State, 74 P.3d 881 (Alaska 2003) (reversing reinstatement where employee was discharged upon revelation of felony conviction for theft of public funds).
. See City of Worcester v. Worcester Vocational Teachers Assn, No. 981686B, 1999 WL 1336075, at *1, *3-4 (Mass.Super.Ct. March 3, 1999) (upholding arbitrators award to reinstate school guidance counselor despite alleged sexually harassing comments and physical contact with a student); City of Cleveland v. Cleveland Police Patrolmans Assn, No. 76181, 2000 WL 573195, at *1, *3-4 (Ohio App. May 11, 2000) (affirming arbitrators reinstatement of police officer convicted of domestic assault even though a federal statute prohibited persons convicted of misdemeanor domestic violence from possessing firearms).
. See, eg., Bureau of Maine State Police v. Pratt, 568 A.2d 501, 505-06 (Me.1989) (holding that arbitrators reinstatement of officer who had sexual encounter with witness and then possibly perjured himself on the topic did not violate public policy); City of Lincoln Park v. Lincoln Park Police Officers Assn, 176 Mich.App. 1, 438 N.W.2d 875, 876 (1989) (holding that enforcement of arbitrators order to reinstate the police officer did not violate public policy even though the officer had engaged in consensual sexual conduct with a complaining witness after responding to her call for help); Monroe Cnty. Sheriff v. Fraternal Order of Police, No. 869, 2002 WL 31170168, at *1 (Ohio App. Sept. 25, 2002) (upholding arbitrators order to reinstate the deputy sheriff who had engaged in consensual sexual conduct with confidential informant while in uniform and on duty).
. See Monroe Cnty. Sheriff, 2002 WL 31170168, at *1, *7 (noting that the conduct could be seen as an abuse of power but nonetheless upholding the reinstatement of the deputy sheriff because there was no clearly defined public policy prohibiting employment of the deputy sheriff).
. Lincoln Park Police Officers Assn, 438 N.W.2d at 876.
. See id.
. See id.
. See id. at 877.
. See PSEA 2010, 235 P.3d 197, 201-03 (Alaska 2010) (upholding arbitrators order for reinstatement and suspension of officer who had harassed a fellow officer at a law enforcement academy).
. Pub. Safety Emps. Assn, Local 92 v. State, 895 P.2d 980, 984 (Alaska 1995) (quoting City of Fairbanks v. Rice, 628 P.2d 565, 567 (Alaska 1981)) (internal quotation marks omitted).
. United Steelworkers of Am. v. Enter. Wheel & Car Corp., 363 U.S. 593, 598, 80 S.Ct. 1358, 4 L.Ed.2d 1424 (1960).
. United Paperworkers Intl Union v. Misco, Inc., 484 U.S. 29, 38, 108 S.Ct. 364, 98 L.Ed.2d 286 (1987); see also United Steelworkers of Am. v. Warrior & Gulf Nav. Co., 363 U.S. 574, 581-82, 80 S.Ct. 1347, 4 L.Ed.2d 1409 (1960); Manville Forest Prods. Corp. v. United Paperworkers Intl Union, 831 F.2d 72, 76 (5th Cir.1987) (approving of the use of past practice to resolve ambiguities and gaps in written collective bargaining agreements).
. Warrior & Gulf Nav. Co., 363 U.S. at 581-82, 80 S.Ct. 1347; see also Manville Forest Prods. Corp., 831 F.2d at 75.
. Bhd. of Locomotive Engrs & Trainmen v. United Transp. Union, 700 F.3d 891, 902 (6th Cir.2012); see also Loveless v. E. Air Lines, Inc., 681 F.2d 1272, 1278 n. 14 (11th Cir.1982) (An arbitrator may be able to discern a latent ambiguity in a contract based upon his examination of past practice or bargaining history even though no ambiguity appears on the face of the contract. The arbitrator might then be able to resolve the latent ambiguity by resort to permissible sources of extrinsic evidence.).
. See Pub. Safety Emps. Assn, Local 92, 895 P.2d at 984.
. See PSEA 2010, 235 P.3d 197, 202 (Alaska 2010).
. See id.
. PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d 151, 163 (Alaska 2011) (quoting Alaska State Emps. Assn/AFSCME Local 52 v. State, 74 P.3d 881, 884 (Alaska 2003)).
. See id.
. We defined just cause for discharge as one which is not for any arbitrary, capricious, or illegal reason and which is one based on facts (1) supported by substantial evidence and (2) reasonably believed by the employer to be true. Alaska State Employees Assn/AFSCME Local 52, 74 P.3d at 883-84 (quoting Manning v. Alaska R.R. Corp., 853 P.2d 1120, 1125 (Alaska 1993)) (internal quotation marks omitted).
. See, e.g., Town of Bloomfield v. United Elec. Radio & Mach. Workers of Am., 50 Conn.Supp. 180, 916 A.2d 882, 885 (2006), revd on other grounds, 285 Conn. 278, 939 A.2d 561 (Conn.2008); City of Boston v. Boston Police Patrolmens Assn, 443 Mass. 813, 824 N.E.2d 855, 862 n. 9 (2005).
. PSEA 2011, 257 P.3d at 165.
. See PSEA 2010, 235 P.3d 197, 201 (Alaska 2010).
. An arbitrator later reinstated the trooper, finding that the State did not bear its burden in proving that the alleged misconduct had occurred. However, the relevant facts here concern the States initial disciplinary action, not the arbitration award.
. In that sole termination case, an arbitrator found the State did not have just cause for termination and ultimately reinstated the trooper.
. The State also contends that [the arbitrator failed to take into account the critical importance of public trust in the State Troopers, but that argument is subsumed within our public policy discussion. See supra Part IV.A.2.e.
. PSEA 2010, 235 P.3d at 201.